Analysis of Ginger Varieties ( Zingiber Officinale ) in Indonesia, Nutritional Content and Potential for Health

. Ginger (Zingiber officinale ) is a traditional spice that is widely used as a medicine with a myriad of benefits because it is rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds that are used in health. Examining the character of various varieties of ginger in Indonesia, nutritional content, pharmacology, and their potential for health. Literature study by reviewing 30 references to publication articles in national and international journals accessed through sciencedirect, google scholar, Pubmed, wiLey. In Indonesia there are 3 varieties of ginger, namely sunti ginger, gajah ginger and emprit ginger. Nutritional content including, energy, carbohydrates, fiber, protein, sodium, iron, potassium and vitamins. Pharmacological activities in ginger include antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial and antiviral Ginger for health can be used to overcome nausea, vomiting, coughing, relieving headaches, and dealing with stress. Ginger contains many nutrients and is beneficial for health.


Introduction
Ginger also known as zingiber officinale, is a traditional spice widely used medicinally because it is rich in phenolic compounds, including zingerone, paradol, shogaol, and gingerol [1,2].6 Gingerol, ginger's main bioactive ingredient, is reported to have antimicrobial properties in terms of anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antiemetic.[3] The chemical content of ginger varies greatly and varies depending on the harvesting process, location of origin, and storage conditions.Ginger contains a lot of dietary fiber, unsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, and essential minerals that have low levels of heavy metals [4].
The general consensus is that ginger is a native of South Asia and has spread to many parts of the world, including Indonesia.China has been using ginger as a food flavoring since 600 BC.Ginger was also utilized by the Greeks as a herbal remedy for nausea, motion sickness, and vertigo.Traditional Asian medicine and cuisine both use ginger [5].
In addition to being a component of traditional medicine and phytopharmaceuticals, ginger is one of Indonesia's most popularly exported spices.This is crucial to obtaining foreign exchange from the nation and absorbing labor.In Indonesia, planting ginger is a common practice, and it is even used as an intercrop in plantations under the Community Based Forest Management program [6].
The three types of ginger most commonly cultivated and consumed in Indonesia are emprit ginger, gajah ginger and sunti ginger.[7] Ginger belongs to the zingiberaceae family, zingiberales order, monocotyledoneae class, and magnoliophyta group.More than 400 compounds have been identified in the very complex chemistry of ginger [1,2,8].The aim of this research is to examine the characteristics of various ginger varieties in Indonesia, their nutritional content, pharmacology and health potential.

Material and methods
Objective: Examine the character of various varieties of ginger in Indonesia, nutritional content, pharmacology, and potential for health.Literature Method: literature study by reviewing 30 reference articles that have been selected from 80 journals that meet the inclusion criteria, including research discussing ginger nutrition, ginger varieties, pharmacology and its benefits for health, full-text articles and research published from 2013 to 2023.Criteria for Exclusion of Articles consisting of abstracts only and not published in scientific journals.Data base seraching through sciencedirect, google scholar, Pubmed, wiLey using keywords ginger, ginger varieties, pharmacology, health benefits.

Ginger Character
Ref.

Sunti ginger (Z. officinale var. rubrum),
The size of the rhizome in red ginger is the smallest compared to the other two varieties.The rhizome is pink to light orange.Red ginger has a rather hard stem, small round shape, and has a plant height of 14.05-48.23cm.The essential oil content in red ginger is higher so it has a spicy taste and is often used as a herbal and pharmaceutical ingredient.The leaves are darker green than elephant ginger or empirite ginger. [9] Gajah ginger (Z.officinale var.

officinarum)
The size of the elephant ginger rhizome is the largest compared to the other two varieties, the rhizome is knuckle, the inside of the rhizome is yellowish-white, the tips of the leaves are pointed, lanceolate, criss-cross on erect pseudo-stems, leaf blades 15-25 cm long and 20-35 cm wide.Plant height is about 85 cm.The stem is large round and light green in color.Leaves 15-25 cm long. [10]

Gajah ginger
Ginger is the most popular on the international market because it doesn't taste too spicy [11] Emprit Ginger It grows well at an altitude of 0 to 1500 meters above sea level Gajah ginger It grows well at an altitude of 500 to 950 meters [10] Emprit ginger (Z.officinale var.amarum).
Emprit ginger has rhizomes weighing 0.5-0.7 kg per clump, rhizomes are small and multi-layered, rhizome length is about 11 cm, flesh of rhizomes is yellowish-white.Plant height 40-60 cm [7] Sunti ginger It has a high essential oil content and the sharpest taste, making it suitable as a basic ingredient for pharmaceuticals and herbal medicine.Used as a [12] , 01021 (2024) BIO Web of Conferences https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/2024960102196 2 nd UICAT 2023 natural preservative because it has antibacterial activity in its content against food-damaging pathogenic bacteria

Emprit ginger
The ginger that is most often found on the market, is slightly flat with soft fibers, does not have a sharp aroma but has a spicy taste [13] Gajah ginger Its thick flesh and mildly spicy flavor make it a good choice for creating cocktails and desserts.[14] From the table above, there are 3 varieties of ginger in Indonesia that are cultivated in Indonesia, including sunti ginger, gajah ginger and emprit ginger, each variety has different rhizome size, shape, color, aroma and weight.The largest rhizome size is the elephant ginger variety and the smallest red ginger variety.Each ginger variety has its own characteristics so it can be used according to your needs.gajah ginger cannot grow well at an altitude of >950 meters above sea level, unlike Sunti ginger and Emprit ginger which can grow well at an altitude of 0-1500 meters above sea level.
The high essential oil content makes red ginger have a spicy taste compared to other types of ginger.This high essential oil content makes red ginger contain antibacterial activity which can be used as a natural preservative.This is different from elephant ginger, which has a less spicy taste and has thick flesh, so gajah ginger is suitable for making drinks and candy.Meanwhile, the emprit ginger type has an aroma that is not too sharp but has a spicy taste suitable for use as a cooking spice.Apart from that, emprit ginger is often found on the market.

Antioxidant
Antioxidants are compounds or systems that can safely interact with free radicals and stop the chain reaction before important molecules break down.Antioxidant compounds are useful in preventing the onset of disease and inhibiting the aging process.Some research suggests that ginger is effective for protection against oxidative stress.The mechanisms underlying antioxidant action were investigated in cell models.[15,16] Ginger extract showed antioxidant effects on human chondrocyte cells, with oxidative stress mediated by interleukin-1β (IL-1β).It stimulates the expression of several antioxidant enzymes and reduces ROS formation and lipid peroxidation [17].In addition, ginger extract may reduce ROS production in human fibrosarcoma cells with HzO2-induced oxidative stress [18].In the heart homogenate of stressed rats, ginger extract decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) content, which is associated with lipid peroxidation [16].

Anti-inflammatory
Inflammation is an innate immune response to external stimuli that are generally beneficial to the human body.However, excessive inflammation can cause damage to the body and also lead to several chronic diseases.Ginger and its active compounds have long been known to have anti-inflammatory properties.In addition, various recent randomized controlled trials have shown that oral and topical applications of ginger are potentially effective against inflammation and pain [3].
Numerous cell types, mediators, receptors, and signaling pathways engage in intricate interactions with one another.In particular, chronic inflammation is the cause of numerous illnesses, including aging, diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, and RA.Studies conducted over time have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory qualities of ginger and its many active components.At first, it was believed that ginger's ability to suppress prostaglandins and daleukotrienes was the main cause of its anti-inflammatory effects.When compared to other shogaols, 6-SG exhibited higher anti-inflammatory action, while ginger extract shown stronger anti-inflammatory activity than diclofenac at the same dose [19].
At 200 mg/kg, ginger extract reversed the histopathological effects of carra geenan and boosted overall antioxidant capacity.According to the scientists, the primary mechanism underlying ginger extract's anti-inflammatory effects is its ability to impede inflammatory cells' migration and activation.[20] Generally speaking, studies have shown that ginger and its active ingredients can effectively reduce inflammation, particularly in cases of inflammatory bowel disease.Ginger has anti-inflammatory properties that could be attributed to suppressing NF-κB and Akt activation, boosting anti-inflammatory cytokines, and lowering pro-inflammatory cytokines.More specifically, the use of ginger nanoparticles may help with inflammatory bowel disease treatment and prevention [1].
Table 4 presents a series of studies that elucidate ginger's anti-inflammatory properties.

Analgesic
Based on the results of a comparative test of the analgesic effect of squeezing red ginger rhizomes with aspirin therapeutic doses on mice conducted by Mantiri et al., which is faster at about 30 minutes, than taking a dose of aspirin which takes about 60 minutes.It can be said that red ginger juice has effectiveness against analgesics or as a pain reliever, because the compound elements contained in ginger have a relationship with analgesic effects, such as gingerol, shogaol, zingeron, diarylheptanoid, and its derivatives, especially paradol which can cause reduced pain because it can inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes thereby reducing the formation or biosynthesis of prostaglandins.[23] A randomized clinical trial determined the effectiveness and safety of ginger capsules and naproxen tablets for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis.The study included 60 male and female patients (>50 years), randomly assigned to receive twice-daily doses of 550 mg (550 mg) ginger capsules plus 550 mg naproxen tablets and placebo for 6 weeks.Concomitant administration of ginger with naproxen is more effective than naproxen alone, in reducing pain and stiffness in osteoarthritis of the knee.Minimal side effects were reported.Mild diarrhea is common in patients.In addition, the authors suggest a long-term multicenter study [24].

Antimicrobial
The spread of bacterial, fungal, and viral infectious diseases has become a major public threat due to antimicrobial resistance.Some herbs and spices have been developed into natural antimicrobial agents that are effective against many pathogenic microorganisms [25].In recent years, ginger has been reported to exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity [26].Therefore, ginger is proven to inhibit the growth of various bacteria, fungi, and viruses.These effects are mainly associated with suppression of bacterial biofilm formation, ergosterol biosynthesis, and viral attachment and internalization.
The components in ginger essential oil include lipophilic qualities, which cause to lose their membrane integrity and increase the permeability of both the cytoplasmic and cell walls [27].Ginger essential oil effectively suppressed Fusarium verticillioides growth by lowering ergosterol production and altering membrane integrity, according to an in vitro investigation.Additionally, it might lessen the synthesis of fumonisin B1 and fumonisin B2 [28].Additionally, the development of Aspergillus flavus as well as the formation of ergosterol and aflatoxin could be effectively inhibited by ginger essential oil [27].Additionally, the ginger essential oil's γ-terpinene and citral had strong antifungal effects against Aspergillus flavus and decreased the expression of some genes involved in the formation of aflatoxin [29].
Additionally, it was discovered that fresh ginger prevented respiratory tract cell lines from developing plaque that was caused by the human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV).Ginger was successful in preventing the internalization and adhesion of viruses [29].Ginger extract reduced the levels of α-fetoprotein (AFP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and other liver function markers in Egyptian HCV patients in a clinical trial [30].

The potential of ginger for health
Studies on pharmacology and epidemiology have provided evidence of some of the health benefits associated with ginger's nutritional and therapeutic applications.One of the most widely utilized natural ingredients for culinary and therapeutic uses, ginger has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and analgetic.The usefulness of ginger in the prevention and treatment of a number of illnesses is reviewed here.Studies have demonstrated that ginger can successfully cure nausea and vomiting, which is why it is traditionally used to treat gastrointestinal disorders.Ginger has direct effects on the digestive system by acting as an anticholinergic and antiserotonin, which increases muscle tone and peristalsis.Ginger may help with antiemetic medication adverse effects related to the central nervous system.
More research on ginger, a potent natural element, is required to improve our comprehension of its function and mode of action in preventing disease.Described in table 6 the potential of ginger for health.

Reference
Result Benefit [33] There is a difference in the effect of giving ginger on reducing the degree of nausea vomiting in pregnant women aged 0-16 weeks gestation who are given ginger powder and not given ginger powder Overcoming nausea, vomiting [34] Ginger drink (Zingiber Officinale) and date palm juice effectively relieve the symptoms of hyperemesis gravidarum.Complementary care with herbal therapy of ginger drink and date palm juice can be used as therapy in pregnant women with hyperemesis Overcoming nausea, vomiting [35] Ginger has properties as an antimicrobial and antiinflammatory that can overcome flu nd cough Overcoming cough [36] Ginger is safe and effective in treating migraine patients with pain outcomes assessed within 2 hours Overcoming migraines [37] Ginger honey was shown to reduce cortisol hormone levels in experimental animals given ginger honey as much as 42 mg / 20g body weight.
Coping with stress

Conclusion
Ginger in Indonesia is widely cultivated with various varieties of sunti ginger (Z.officinale var.rubrum), gajah ginger (Z.officinale var.officinarum), emprit ginger (Z.officinale var.amarum).The benefits of ginger consumption have been widely proven because of the nutritional content and pharmacological activity in ginger that can be used in treatment.

Table 1 .
Ginger varieties in Indonesia.

Table 4 .
Anti-inflammatory activity of ginger.

Table 5 .
Antimicrobial mechanisms of ginger.

Table 6 .
Benefits of ginger for body health